Chapter 4: Old English – Outer History

Video Lecture

Figure 4.1: Opening Lines of Beowulf

Source: British Library

License: Public Domain

Link: here

The Early Inhabitants of Britain

Chapter three described in broad strokes the Indo-European language and its spread throughout Europe. We are jumping ahead from the early spread of this ancient language to a time when the linguistic descendants of the Indo-European language family had established themselves firmly around Europe. In the centuries before the traditional starting date of English (449 AD), there were established language families in Europe. Latin was the language of southern Europe, Germanic languages were dominant in northern Europe, Slavic languages were dominant in the eastern part of Europe, and Celtic languages were dominant in Gaul (modern-day France, Luxembourg, and Belgium). Eventually, the Celtic language spread to modern-day Britain. Remember that all these languages have their origins in Indo-European. Of course, by this time these language families were mutually unintelligible.

What is significant is that Celtic languages were the languages of what would become England. However, a very significant event led to the decline of Celtic languages–the Roman invasion of England.

The Romans first entered Britain in 55 BC under Julius Caesar, although they did not begin a permanent occupation until 43 AD, when Emperor Claudius sent a much better prepared force to subjugate the fierce British Celts. Despite a series of uprisings by the natives (including that of Queen Boudicca, or Boadicea in 61 AD), Britain remained part of the Roman Empire for almost 400 years, and there was a substantial amount of interbreeding between the two peoples, though the Romans never succeeded in penetrating the mountainous regions of Wales and Scotland.

Despite some limitations, the reach of the Roman Empire was vast. Figure 4.2 shows the

region of the world that was under Roman rule around the year 100 AD.

Figure 4.2: The Roman Empire in 117 AD

Source: Wikipedia

Attribution: Tataryn

License: CC BY-SA 3.0

Link: here

Although this first invasion had a profound effect on the culture, religion, geography, architecture and social behavior of Britain, the linguistic legacy of the Romans’ time in Britain was, like that of the Celts, surprisingly limited. This legacy takes the form of less than 200 “loanwords” coined by Roman merchants and soldiers, such as win (“wine”), butere (“butter”), caese (“cheese”), piper (“pepper”), candel (“candle”), cetel (“kettle”), disc (“dish”), cycene (“kitchen”), ancor (“anchor”), belt (“belt”), sacc (“sack”), catte (“cat”), plante (“plant”), rosa (“rose”), cest (“chest”), pund (“pound”), munt (“mountain”), straet (“street”), wic (“village”), mil (“mile”), port (“harbour”), weall (“wall”), etc. However, Latin would, at a later time, with the coming of Christianity, the Norman invasion, literacy, and the English Renaissance come to have a substantial influence on the language.

Latin did not replace the Celtic language in Britain as it had done in Gaul. The use of Latin by native Britons during the period of Roman rule was probably confined to members of the upper classes and the inhabitants of the cities and towns. As the centuries progressed, Rome came under attack by various groups. See Figure 4.3.

Figure 4.3: Invasion of the Roman Empire

Source: Wikimedia Commons

License: CC BY-SA 2.5

Link: here

The Romans, under attack at home from Visigoths, Ostrogoths, and Vandals, abandoned Britain to the Celts in 410 AD, completing their withdrawal by 436 AD. Within a remarkably short time after this withdrawal, the Roman influence on Britain, in language as in many other walks of life, was all but lost, as Britain settled into the so-called Dark Ages.

More important than the Celts and the Romans for the development of the English language, though, was the succession of invasions from continental Europe after the Roman withdrawal. No longer protected by the Roman military against the constant threat from the Picts and Scots of the North, the Celts felt themselves increasingly vulnerable to attack. Around 430 AD, the ambitious Celtic warlord Vortigern invited the Jutish brothers Hengest and Horsa (from Jutland in modern-day Denmark), to settle on the east coast of Britain to form a bulwark against sea raids by the Picts, in return for which they were “allowed” to settle in the southern areas of Kent, Hampshire, and the Isle of Wight.

But the Jutes were not the only newcomers to Britain during this period. Other Germanic tribes soon began to make the short journey across the North Sea. The Angles (from a region called Angeln, the spur of land which connects modern Denmark with Germany) gradually began to settle in increasing numbers on the east coast of Britain, particularly in the north and East Anglia. The Frisian people, from the marshes and islands of northern Holland and western Germany, also began to encroach on the British mainland from about 450 AD onwards. Still later, from the 470s, the war-like Saxons (from the Lower Saxony area of north-western Germany) made an increasing number of incursions into the southern part of the British mainland. Over time, these Germanic tribes began to establish permanent bases and to gradually displace the native Celts. See Figure 4.4 for a map of the areas of the Germanic invasion of Britain.

Figure 4.4: Invasion of Britain by Germanic Groups

Source: Wikipedia

Attribution: mbartelsm

License: CC BY-SA 3.0

Link: here

All these peoples spoke variations of a West Germanic tongue, similar to modern Frisian, variations that were different but probably close enough to be mutually intelligible. The local dialect in Angeln is, at times, even today recognizably similar to English, and it has even more in common with the English of 1,000 years ago. Modern Frisian, especially spoken, bears an eerie resemblance to English, as can be seen by some of the Frisian words which were incorporated into English, like miel (“meal”), laam (“lamb”), goes (“goose”), bûter (“butter”), tsiis (“cheese”), see (“sea”), boat (“boat”), stoarm (“storm”), rein (“rain”), snie (“snow”), frieze (‘freeze’), froast (“frost”), mist (“mist”), sliepe (“sleep”), blau (“blue”), trije (“three”), fjour (“four”), etc.

The influx of Germanic people was more of a gradual encroachment over several generations than an invasion proper, but these tribes gradually colonized most of the island, with the exception of the more remote areas, which remained strongholds of the original Celtic people of Britain. Originally sea-farers, they began to settle down as farmers, exploiting the rich English farmland. The rather primitive newcomers were, if anything, less cultured and civilized than the local Celts, who had held onto at least some parts of Roman culture. No love was lost between the two peoples, and there was little integration between them—the Celts referred to the European invaders as “barbarians” (as they had previously been labelled themselves)—the invaders referred to the Celts as weales (slaves or foreigners), the origin of the name Wales.

Despite continued resistance (the legends and folklore of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table date from this time), the Celts were pushed further and further back by the invaders into the wilds of Scotland, Wales, Cornwall and Ireland, although some chose to flee to the Brittany region of northern France (where they maintained a thriving culture for several centuries) and even further into mainland Europe. The Celtic language survives today only in the Gaelic languages of Scotland and Ireland, the Welsh of Wales, and the Breton language of Brittany (the last native speaker of the Cornish language died in 1777, and the last native speaker of Manx, a Celtic language spoken on the tiny Isle of Man, died as recently as the 1960s, and these are now dead languages).

The Germanic tribes settled in seven smaller kingdoms, known as the Heptarchy: the Saxons in Essex, Wessex and Sussex, the Angles in East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria, and the Jutes in Kent. See Figure 4.5.

Figure 4.5: Seven Kingdoms of Germanic Tribes in Britain

Source: Wikipedia

Attribution: Sakurambo

License: Public Domain

Link: here

Evidence of the extent of their settlement can be found in the number of place names throughout England ending with the Anglo-Saxon -ing, meaning “people of” (e.g. Worthing, Reading, Hastings), -ton, meaning “enclosure” or “village” (e.g. Taunton, Burton, Luton), -ford, meaning a “river crossing” (e.g. Ashford, Bradford, Watford), -ham, meaning “farm” (e.g. Nottingham, Birmingham, Grantham), and -stead, meaning “a site” (e.g. Hampstead).

Although the different kingdoms waxed and waned in their power and influence over time, it was the war-like and pagan Saxons that gradually became the dominant group. The new Anglo-Saxon nation, once known in antiquity as Albion and then Britannia under the Romans, nevertheless became known as Anglaland or Englaland (the Land of the Angles), later shortened to England, and its emerging language as Englisc (now referred to as Old English or Anglo-Saxon, or sometimes Anglo-Frisian). It is impossible to say just when English became a separate language rather than just a German dialect, although it seems that the language began to develop its own distinctive features in isolation from the continental Germanic languages by around 600 AD. Over time, four major dialects of Old English gradually emerged: Northumbrian in the north of England, Mercian in the midlands, West Saxon in the south and west, and Kentish in the southeast.

The Coming of Christianity and Literacy

Although many of the Romano-Celts in the north of England had already been Christianized, St. Augustine and his 40 missionaries from Rome brought Christianity to the pagan Anglo-Saxons of the rest of England in 597 AD. After the conversion of the influential King Ethelbert of Kent, it spread rapidly through the land, carrying literacy and European culture in its wake. Augustine was made Archbishop of Canterbury in 601 AD and several great monasteries and centers of learning were established, particularly in Northumbria (e.g. Jarrow, Lindisfarne).

The Celts and the early Anglo-Saxons used an alphabet of runes, angular characters originally developed for scratching onto wood or stone. Figure 4.6 shows examples of Anglo-Saxon runic writing.

Figure 4.6: Example of Runic Symbols from 9^th Century

Source: Wikipedia

License: Public Domain

Link: here

The first known written English sentence, which reads, “This she-wolf is a reward to my kinsman,” is an Anglo-Saxon runic inscription on a gold medallion found in Suffolk, and has been dated to about 450–480 AD. Figure 4.7 shows an image of this sentence on the coin.

Figure 4.7: Undley Bracteate

Source: British Museum

License: CC BY-NC-ND

Link: here

The early Christian missionaries introduced the more rounded Roman alphabet (much as we use today), which was easier to read and more suited for writing on vellum or parchment. The Anglo-Saxons quite rapidly adopted the new Roman alphabet, but with the addition of letters such as wynn (“wynn”), þ (“thorn”), ð (“edh” or “eth”) and 3 (“yogh”) from the old runic alphabet for certain sounds not used in Latin. Wynn later became “uu” and, still later, “w;” þ and ð were used more or less interchangeably to represent the sounds now spelled with “th;” and 3 was used for “y,” “j,” or “g” sounds. In addition, the diphthong æ (“ash”) was also used; “v” was usually written with an “f;” and the letters “q,” “x,” and “z” were rarely used at all.

The Latin language the missionaries brought was still only used by the educated ruling classes and Church functionaries, and Latin was only a minor influence on the English language at this time, being largely restricted to the naming of Church dignitaries and ceremonies (priest, vicar, altar, mass, church, bishop, pope, nun, angel, verse, baptism, monk, eucharist, candle, temple and presbyter came into the language this way). However, other more domestic words (such as fork, spade, chest, spider, school, tower, plant, rose, lily, circle, paper, sock, mat, cook, etc.) also came into English from Latin during this time, albeit substantially altered and adapted for the Anglo-Saxon ear and tongue. More ecclesiastical Latin loanwords continued to be introduced, even as late as the 11^th century, including chorus, cleric, creed, cross, demon, disciple, hymn, paradise, prior, sabbath, etc.

Old English literature flowered remarkably quickly after Augustine’s arrival. This was especially notable in the north-eastern kingdom of Northumbria, which provided England with its first great poet (Caedmon in the 7^th century), its first great historian (the Venerable Bede in the 7^th–8^th century) and its first great scholar (Alcuin of York in the 8^th century), although the latter two wrote mainly in Latin. The oldest surviving text of Old English literature is usually considered to be “Cædmon's Hymn,” composed between 658 and 680. Northumbrian culture and language dominated England in the 7^th and 8^th centuries, until the coming of the Vikings, after which only Wessex, under Alfred the Great, remained as an independent kingdom. By the 10^th century, the West Saxon dialect had become the dominant, and effectively the official, language of Britain (sometimes referred to as the koiné, or common dialect). The different dialects often had their own preferred spellings as well as distinctive vocabulary (e.g. the word evil was spelled efel in the south-east, and yfel elsewhere; land would be land in West Saxon and Kentish, but lond further north.)

The Vikings

By the late 8^th century, the Vikings (or Norsemen) began to make sporadic raids on the east cost of Britain. They came from Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, although it was the Danes who came with the greatest force. Notorious for their ferocity, ruthlessness, and callousness, the Vikings pillaged and plundered the towns and monasteries of northern England. In 793, they sacked and looted the wealthy monastery at Lindisfarne in Northumbria before turning their attentions further south. By about 850, the raiders had started to over-winter in southern England and, in 865, there followed a full-scale invasion and ongoing battles for the possession of the country.

Figure 4.8: Map of Viking Invasion

Source: John Mcklethwait

Viking expansion was finally checked by Alfred the Great and, in 878, a treaty between the Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings established the Danelaw, splitting the country along a line roughly from London to Chester, giving the Norsemen control over the north and east and the Anglo-Saxons the south and west.

Figure 4.9: Danelaw

Source: Wikipedia

Attribution: Hel-hama

License: CC BY-SA 3.0

Link: here

Although the Danelaw lasted less than a century, its influence can be seen today in the number of Norse place names in northern England (over 1,500), including many place names ending in -by, -gate, -stoke, -kirk, -thorpe, -thwaite, -toft and other suffixes (e.g. Whitby, Grimsby, Ormskirk, Scunthorpe, Stoke Newington, Huthwaite, Lowestoft, etc.), as well as the -son ending on family names (e.g. Johnson, Harrison, Gibson, Stevenson, etc.) as opposed to the Anglo-Saxon equivalent -ing (e.g. Manning, Harding, etc).

The Vikings spoke Old Norse, an early North Germanic language not that dissimilar to Anglo-Saxon and roughly similar to modern Icelandic (the word viking actually means “a pirate raid” in Old Norse). Accents and pronunciations in northern England even today are heavily influenced by Old Norse, to the extent that they are largely intelligible in Iceland.

Over time, Old Norse was gradually merged into the English language, and many Scandinavian terms were introduced. In fact, only around 150 Norse words appear in Old English manuscripts of the period, but many more became assimilated into the language and gradually began to appear in texts over the next few centuries. In all, up to 1,000 Norse words were permanently added to the English lexicon, among them, some of the most common and fundamental in the language, including skull, skin, leg, neck, freckle, sister, husband, fellow, wing, bull, score, seat, root, bloom, bag, gap, knife, dirt, kid, link, gate, sky, egg, cake, skirt, band, bank, birth, scrap, skill, thrift, window, gasp, gap, law, anger, trust, silver, clasp, call, crawl, dazzle, scream, screech, race, lift, get, give, are, take, mistake, rid, seem, want, thrust, hit, guess, kick, kill, rake, raise, smile, hug, call, cast, clip, die, flat, meek, rotten, tight, odd, rugged, ugly, ill, sly, wrong, loose, happy, awkward, weak, worse, low, both, same, together, again, until.

Old Norse often provided direct alternatives or synonyms for Anglo-Saxon words, both of which have been carried on (e.g. Anglo-Saxon craft and Norse skill, wish, and want, dike and ditch, sick, and ill, whole and hale, raise and rear, wrath and anger, hide and skin). Unusually for language development, English also adopted some Norse grammatical forms, such as the pronouns they, them, and their, although these words did not enter the dialects of London and southern England until as late as the 15^th century. Under the influence of the Danes, Anglo-Saxon word endings and inflections started to fall away during the time of the Danelaw, and prepositions like to, with, and by became more important to make meanings clear, although many inflections continued into Middle English, particularly in the south and west (the areas furthest from Viking influence).

By the time Alfred the Great came to the throne in 871, most of the great monasteries of Northumbria and Mercia lay in ruins and only Wessex remained as an independent kingdom. But Alfred, from his capital town of Winchester, set about rebuilding and fostering the revival of learning, law, and religion. Crucially, he believed in educating the people in the vernacular English language, not Latin, and he himself made several translations of important works into English, include Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the English People. He also began the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which recounted the history of England from the time of Caesar's invasion, and continued until 1154.

He is revered by many as having single-handedly saved English from the destruction of the Vikings, and by the time of his death in 899, he had raised the prestige and scope of English to a level higher than that of any other vernacular language in Europe. The West Saxon dialect of Wessex became the standard English of the day (although the other dialects continued nonetheless), and for this reason the great bulk of the surviving documents from the Anglo-Saxon period are written in the Wessex dialect.

The following paragraph from Aelfrich’s 10^th century “Homily on St. Gregory the Great” gives an idea of what Old English looked like (if not how it sounded):

Eft he axode, hu ðære ðeode nama wære þe hi of comon. Him wæs geandwyrd, þæt hi Angle genemnode wæron. þa cwæð he, “Rihtlice hi sind Angle gehatene, for ðan ðe hi engla wlite habbað, and swilcum gedafenað þæt hi on heofonum engla geferan beon.”

A few words stand out immediately as being identical to their modern equivalents (he, of, him, for, and, on) and a few more may be reasonably guessed (nama became the modern name, comon became come, wære became were, wæs became was). But several more have survived in altered form, including axode (“asked”), hu (“how”), rihtlice (“rightly”), engla (“angels”), habbað (“have”), swilcum (“such”), heofonum (“heaven”), and beon (‘be’), and many more have disappeared completely from the language, including eft (“again”), ðeode (“people, nation”), cwæð (“said, spoke”), gehatene (“called, named”), wlite (“appearance, beauty”), and geferan (“companions”), as have special characters like þ (“thorn”) and ð (“edh” or “eth”), which served in Old English to represent the sounds now spelled with “th.”

Old English Texts

About 400 Anglo-Saxon texts survive from this era, including many beautiful poems, telling tales of wild battles and heroic journeys. The oldest surviving text of Old English literature is “Cædmon's Hymn,” which was composed between 658 and 680, and the longest was the ongoing “Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.” But by far the best known is the long epic poem Beowulf.

Beowulf may have been written any time between the 8^th and the early 11^th century by an unknown author or authors, or, most likely, it was written in the 8^th century and then revised in the 10^th or 11^th century. It was probably originally written in Northumbria, although the single manuscript that has come down to us (which dates from around 1000) contains a bewildering mix of Northumbrian, West Saxon, and Anglian dialects. The 3,182 lines of the work show that Old English was already a fully developed poetic language by this time, with a particular emphasis on alliteration and percussive effects. Even at this early stage (before the subsequent waves of lexical enrichment), the variety and depth of English vocabulary, as well as its predilection for synonyms and subtleties of meanings, is evident. For example, the poem uses 36 different words for hero, 20 for man, 12 for battle, and 11 for ship. There are also many interesting “kennings,” or allusive compound words, such as hronrad (literally, “whale-road,” meaning the sea), banhus (“bone-house,” meaning “body”) and beadoleoma (“battle-light,” meaning “sword”). Of the 903 compound nouns in Beowulf, 578 are used once only, and 518 of them are known only from this one poem.

The outer history of Old English is largely one of the impact of cultures and languages colliding. It is inevitable that groups of people will feel that something has been lost when the old traditions give way to a new reality. This was the case with the Germanic tribes in England. During the latter part of the OE stage, there was a longing for the heroic past that had become mythologized in the mindset of the OE speakers. Stories of heroic deeds on the continent were clung to as their society changed due to clashes, migrations, and the introduction of Christianity.

Beowulf is a heroic poem that speaks of monsters, demons, and the deeds of great men. The sole surviving copy can be dated to around 1000 AD. Beowulf survives in a single manuscript that was burned around the edges in a fire in 1741–without it, the story of the hero of the Geats would have been lost to history. It is impossible to know how long the oral story was in circulation before it was written down.

It was written in OE, although the main actions of the story take place in what would be modern-day Denmark and Sweden (see Figure 4.10), but the vocabulary would have seemed a bit dated even to its first audience. Nonetheless, Beowulf offers a glimpse into society toward the end of the OE period. There is a fascinating blend of paganism and Christianity in the narrative as audiences listen to the deeds of the hero, Beowulf.

Figure 4.10: Beowulf Geography Map

Source: Wikimedia Commons

Artist: Wiglaf

Link: Here

Texts on the history of English often include works of literature to illustrate the social and cultural elements of the time. The following excerpt in the next section will give readers a taste of this great work. The language has been modernized because the OE would be unintelligible to the modern PDE reader.

The story can be divided into three major sections: the conflict with Grendel (a monster), which draws Beowulf to Hrothgar’s kingdom at the beginning of the story; the fight with Grendel’s (unnamed) mother; and Beowulf’s battle with the dragon years later. As these divisions suggest, heroic behavior drives the action, but the story also asks the audience to stop and consider what heroic behavior really is, sometimes by highlighting the opposite. When Hrothgar lectures Beowulf after Grendel dies (a passage referred to as Hrothgar’s sermon), he warns about the dangers of pride and seeking after fame, foreshadowing Beowulf’s death. This

warning is appropriate for a warrior culture, but it also works as a reference to Christian values. The tensions in the story between the Germanic heroic code and Christian values are worth noting, since the clearly pagan story was written down after the Saxons had begun to convert. The story records the past glories of warrior culture within a (barely) Christian framework to justify preserving the story.

The first section is included below.

Excerpts from Beowulf

Heyla! We have a story about the Spear-Danes, from the old days

when they were big and their kings showed their strength. There was

one king, Shield Schefing, who stole many mead­benches from other

tribes and terrified their leaders. At first, he was found weak and

wandering, but was taken in and then grew under the comfort of the

skies. He consumed honors until each of the other surrounding tribes

over the whale’s road were forced to obey him and pay tribute. They

say, that was a good king.

After all this (when he was old), Shield had a son—a young one in

the courtyard—who had been sent by God as a comfort to the people

because He had seen how they were distressed, left without a strong

leader for a long while.

The Lord of life, 16

ruler of glory, gifted worldly honour:

Beowulf was famed with widespread renown,

son of Scyld, in the northern lands.

So should a young man do good things

with costly gifts in his father’s care,

so that in old age loyal companions

remain with him afterwards; when war comes

they will support their prince. Through glorious deeds

a man shall prosper among peoples everywhere.

Scyld then set off at his due time,

the mighty lord went into the Lord’s keeping.

His beloved companions carried him then to the

water’s edge, as he himself had instructed

when he still governed, that much-loved Scylding friend,

their3 beloved land­prince held power a long time. 31

There in the port a ring-prowed ship stood anchored,

icy and eager, a nobleman’s vessel.

They laid down their dear king,

giver of rings, in the bosom of the ship,

mighty by the mainmast. There were many treasures

from faraway lands, such precious things loaded there.

I have never heard of a finer ship

fitted with the weapons and armor of war,

swords and harnesses. In its embrace lay

a multitude of treasures, which were to go with him

far off, into the dominion of the sea.

No fewer gifts were provided for him there,

the very wealth of a nation, than what was once done by those who,

at his birth, set him adrift,

alone over the waves as a child. 46

Then they set for him a golden banner

high over his head, let the water carry him,

gave him to the powers of the sea. In them there was a sad spirit,

a mournful mind. Men did not know,

to tell the truth, hall counselors,

heroes under the heavens, who accepted that load.

I

Then was in the stronghold Beow of the Scyldings

a beloved king of the people for a long time,

famous among the folk. His father had gone elsewhere,

that honored one had left the earth. Until to Beow once more was born

high Healfdene, who held while he lived,

old and battle­fierce, the glorious Scyldings.

From him four children all told

arose into the world, from the leader of the host,

Heorogar,5 and Hrothgar, and Halga the Good. 61

That woman, I heard, was the noble one’s queen,

the beloved bedfellow of the Battle­Scylfing.

Then Hrothgar was granted success in war,

glory in battle, so that his dear kinsmen

served him eagerly, until the young warriors

grew to be a mighty troop. He had the idea

that he should bid men to build

a house, a great mead-hall, which

the children of men would hear of forever.

And there within he would share everything,

with young and old, such as God gave him,

except for the common land and lives of men.

Far and wide then I heard the work was declared

to many peoples throughout this middle earth,

To6 adorn the place of the nation. It happened to him in time, 76

Quickly among men, that it was all ready,

The largest of hall-buildings. He gave it the name “Heort,”

He who had power of his word far and wide.

He did not neglect his vow, distributed rings,

Treasure at the feast. The hall towered,

High and wide­gabled. It awaited the flames of battle,

The hated fire. It was not to be much longer,

Until the sword-hatred, swearing with oaths,

After murderous malice, would awaken.

Then the powerful spirit miserably

Endured the time, he who lived in the shadows,

When he each day heard merriment

Loud in the hall. There was the music of the harp,

The clear song of the scop. He spoke, who knew how

To narrate from afar the origin of men,

Said that the Almighty created the earth,

The bright beauteous land, as the water surrounds it,

Established victorious the sun and moon,

The luminaries as light for land-dwellers,

And adorned the fields of the earth

With branches and leaves, He also created life

For each of the kindreds that move about alive.

So those courtiers lived happily,

Blessedly, until one began

To carry out crimes, an enemy in hell.

That grim spirit was called Grendel,

The infamous border-walker, who ruled the moors,

The fens and strongholds. The land of the race of monsters

That miserable man lived in for a time,

after7 the Creator had condemned him 106

with Cain’s kin. That killing He punished,

the everlasting Lord, the slaying of Abel.

There was no relish in that feud, for He banished him far away,

the Maker for that sin, away from mankind.

From him awoke each kind of onerous offspring:

enemies and elves and evil spirits

and likewise giants, who wrestled with God

time and time again; He repaid them a reward for that.

II

He advanced then as soon as night came, sought the

high house, and how the Ring Danes

had occupied it after their beer­banquet.

He found within there a band of princes

sleeping after the feast. Sorrow they did not know—

the misfortune of men. The wretched wight,

grim and greedy, was ready at once, 121

fierce and furious, and from their rest he seized

thirty thegns. From there he left,

boasting of booty, to return home,

sated by slaughter, to find his abode.

It was at dawn, with daybreak,

that Grendel’s war-cunning became known to men.

Then after feasting woe arose,

a great cry in the morning. The renowned leader,

the good prince of old, sat mournfully;

the mighty one suffered, bore sorrow for his thegns,

once they witnessed the track of that loathed one,

of that cursed spirit. That strife was too strong,

loathed and lengthy. It was not much later,

only after a night, he acted again,

perpetrated greater murder­slaughter, and mourned not for it, 136

acts of feuding and crime; he was too fixated on them.

Then the man was easy to find who would elsewhere,

further away, seek his resting place,

a bed among the outer buildings, when it was shown to him,

truly told with a clear sign:

the hatred of the hall-thane; he kept further away

and more securely afterwards, whoever had escaped the fiend.

So he ruled and strove against justice,

one against all, until it stood abandoned,

that best of halls. The time was long:

For the space of twelve winters he endured anguish,

the friend of the Scyldings, every kind of woe,

endless sorrows. Therefore, it became visible

to the children of mankind, known and revealed

sadly in stories, that Grendel struggled 151

for a long time with Hrothgar, and carried forth his hate-violence,

his sins, and his enmity, for many half-years,

a perpetual strife. He wanted no friendship

with any men of the Danish host,

and wished neither to cease his deadly evil, nor settle for a fee;

nor did the wise advisers there have reason to expect

brilliant compensation from the hands of the slayer.

The hideous opponent, the dark death-shadow,

pursued both the aged and the young;

he lay in wait and ambushed them, and in perpetual night held

the misty moors. Men do not know

which way hell-demons glide in their goings.

Thus, the enemy of mankind, hideous and solitary,

often carried out his many crimes,

harsh¹¹ injuries. He dwelled in Heorot, 166

the richly ornamented hall in dark nights.

Not at all could he touch the gift-seat,

the precious thing because of God, nor did he know his purpose.

That was great misery for the lord of the Scyldings,

the mind’s griefs. Often many a mighty man

sat in consultation; they heeded the advice,

what for strong-minded ones would be best

to do against the perilous horror.

Sometimes they vowed at heathen temples

reverence to idols, urged with words

that the soul-killer would grant them aid

against the people’s threat. Such was their custom,

hope of the heathens. They remembered hell

in their minds, they did not know the Creator

the¹² Judge of deeds, nor did they know the Lord God. 181

Nor indeed did they understand how to praise Heaven’s Protector,

the Ruler of Glory. Woe shall befall the one who must,

because of evil affliction, thrust their soul

into the fire’s embraces, unable to hope for comfort

or any change. Well shall it be for the one who is able,

after their death-day, to go to the Lord

and seek the protection of the Father’s embraces.

III

Thus, on the sorrow of the age, the son of Healfdene

brooded ceaselessly. The wise warrior was unable

to set misery aside. The oppression was too severe;

grievous and relentless, it had befallen the people;

cruel, violent torment, the greatest of night terrors.

News was heard in the homeland of Hygelac’s warrior,

a man respected among the Geats, of Grendel’s actions.

He was mankind’s strongest of might 196

in those days of this life,

noble and great. He asked to equip

a good ship. He said he would seek

the war king over the swan road,

famous king, since he was in need of men.

Not at all did the wise noblemen blame him

for the adventure, though he was dear to them,

they urged the valiant one. They studied omens.

The good man had from the Geats

chosen warriors, those the bravest

he might find. One of the fifteen

went to the ship, the man led the way,

the sea-skilled man, to the shore.

A span of time passed. The ship was on the waves, 210

The boat beneath the bluff. Noble ones, equipped,

ascended the ship. Currents whirled,

water against the sand. Warriors carried

into the ship’s hold shimmering treasures,

emblazoned battle-gear. The men shoved off,

men on their willed-for journey, in a well-bound boat.

Then they left, over the whale-home, propelled by the wind—

the frothy-necked boat looked most like a bird—

even after the expected time of the following day had elapsed,

the stem-twisted ship had travelled,

so that those sailors saw land:

the gleaming sea-cliff, high promontory,

expansive sea-ness. Then the sea voyage was over,

the ocean ended whence, quickly,

the people of the Weder-Geats stepped onto the strand;

the¹⁶ sea­wood was moored, the mail­shirts resounding, 226

the battle-garb. They gave thanks to God

that the wave-ways were easy for them.

Then the ward of the Scyldings saw them from the wall,

he who must keep the ocean-cliffs,

must bear bright spears over the deck,

ready in his war-gear. Curiosity plagued him

in his mind-thoughts who these men were.

Then he departed riding his horse to the shore,

the thane of Hrothgar, brandishing mightily

the strong wood in his hands, asking in formal terms,

“Who are you all, armor-having warriors

guarded in your corslets, who have thus come

leading your steep ship over the watery lanes,

to here across the seas?” He amid his select troop was

at¹⁷ the farthest point, held watch by the sea, so that no enemy with 241

a sea-invading army might do harm in the land of the Danes. “Shield-

bearers have not more openly dared to come, nor did you know that

leave would be readily granted from those accomplished in battle,

permission from kinsmen. I never saw a greater man in the world

than is one of you, a fighter in war­gear; he is not merely a hall­

retainer decked out with weapons unless his looks betray him, his

unique appearance. Now I shall know your lineage, rather than you

go farther from here as spies into the land of the Danes. Now you

travellers from afar, you sea-journeyers, hear

this¹ simple thought: that it is advisable to say quickly from where 256

you came.”

IV

That noblest of men, the leader of the company, answered him,

unlocking his word-hoard: “We are from the nation of the Geatish

people, and Hygelac’s hearth-companions. My father, a great war-

rior, was well known among the people. He was called Ecgtheow. He

saw many winters before he departed on his journey from this world.

He was well-regarded by the wise throughout the whole wide world.

We come in good faith to your lord, the son of Healfdene, the protector

of your people. Let your counsel be true! We have a great message to

declare to him,

to the lord of the Danes. Nor shall there be 271

anything secret, I expect: you know, if it is

truly as we have heard tell,

that an enemy of some sort among the Scyldings,

a secret persecutor in the dark nights,

manifests terror and awful affliction,

humiliation and slaughter. I can give Hrothgar

this counsel from my generous mind,

how he, wise and good, may overcome the enemy—

if a reversal of fortune should ever come to him,

a remedy of these afflictions come again,

and the seethings of his sorrow become cooler,

or always afterward endure a time of tribulation,

a great distress while the best of houses

remains in its high place.”

The guard spoke from where he sat on horseback, 286

the fearless officer. “A keen shield­warrior,

he who considers well, must know

the distinction between both words and deeds.

I hear that this host is friendly

to the king of the Scyldings. Go forth bearing

your weapons and gear; I will guide you.

Likewise I will command my young followers

to guard your ship with honor against all enemies,

this newly-tarred vessel on the sand,

until the twist-prowed wood carries

back over the ocean currents to the Weder borders

every beloved man among these doing good,

who is fated to survive the battle-rush whole.”

They²¹ went to leave then. The ship stayed in place, 301

rested in the tideland, the wide-bosomed vessel

secured at anchor. Boar effigies,

gold-touched, gleamed above cheekguards—

a decorated, fire­hard thing to keep watch over life.

War-hearted ones clattered, fell in together,

the men hurried on till they caught sight of it

fully timbered, fitted out richly, trimmed with gold:

that hall, the most famous to land-dwellers

under the heavens, in which the mighty one abode.

Its brightness shone on many lands.

The fierce fighter pointed them to the splendid

home of the proud so they could march

right to it. One among warriors,

he turned his horse, spoke a word behind him: 316

“It is time for me to depart. May the all-ruling Father keep you safe

on your journeys through his kindness. I will go to the sea to keep

watch against a hostile troop.”

V

The street was stone-paved; the path guided the warriors together.

The hard, hand-linked battle-byrnie shone, the bright iron-ring of

the armor resounded, when they first set out for the hall in their awe-

inspiring armor. The sea-weary men set down their wide shields,

those exceptionally hard rounds, against the wall of the building; they

bent down onto the bench—the byrnies, the warriors’ war-gear, rang;

the spears stood, the gear of the sea-men gathered together, an ash-

grove topped with gray; the armed troop was

honored²³ in its weapons. Then the bold warrior 331

asked those combatants about their own warriors:

“Where do you come from bearing gilt shields,

grey hauberks, and grim helmets,

that band of battle-shafts? I am Hrothgar’s

herald and attendant. I have never seen a foreign host,

so many men, looking more courageous.

I expect that you, because of boldness, not banishment,

and for strength of heart, sought Hrothgar.”

To him then the valor-brave answered,

proud prince of the Weders, pronounced these words,

hardy under his helm: “We are Hygelac’s

table-mates. Beowulf is my name.

I want to tell Halfdane’s son,

that peerless prince, my errand,

to your prince, if he will allow us, 346

so that we may greet him, this good man.”

Wulfgar spoke formally. He was the Wendels’ prince,

his courage of spirit known to many,

at war and in wisdom: “I will ask

the Danes’ friend, the Scyldings’ ruler,

the giver of rings, as you have requested,

the celebrated prince, about your errand,

that you quickly know the answer

which that good man thinks to give me.”

He turned quickly then to where Hrothgar sat,

old and very grey, with his troop of noblemen.

The braveheart went so that he stood by the shoulder

of the Danes’ ruler. He knew the custom of warriors.

Wulfgar spoke properly to his good lord:

“The Geatish people are led here, 361

Come from afar over an expanse of sea.

Warriors call the chief one

Beowulf. They are requesting,

My king, that they might

Exchange words with you. Do not refuse them

Your answers, gracious Hrothgar.

In war­equipment, they appear worthy

Of praise from warriors; indeed, the chief

Who lead the warriors hither is powerful.”

VI

Hrothgar, protector of the Scyldings, spoke:

“I knew him as a boy;

His late father was called Ecgtheow;

Hrethel of the Geats gave him his only daughter

As a wife; now his son,

The²⁶ brave one, has come here to seek a loyal lord. 376

From Geatland far, whence seamen sailed

Bearing gifts of thanks come tales of one

Whose hand-grip rivals that of thirty men,

A hero of battle-fame.

Holy God 381

For our honor has sent him to us,

The West-Danes, as I would hope,

Against Grendel’s terror. For the good man’s might

And great daring I shall bestow gifts.

Now make haste, call them inside

To look upon my band of kinsmen gathered together.

Tell them in words that they are welcome 388

To the people of the Danes.” Wulfgar relayed the word:

“My lord bids me to tell you, the victory-lord,

leader of the East-Danes, that he knows of your nobility

and that you have sailed across the sea-wellings.

We welcome you here, spirited ones.

“Now you may come forth in your armor, 394

Wearing your war-helms, to witness Hrothgar.

However, you must leave your battle-shields,

Your weapons of wood behind while we discuss the matter.”

Then the Geatish ruler rose, surrounded by his loyal retinue,

A splendid troop of thanes.

Some bided there 399

To keep the battle-gear guarded as the brave one ordered.

Guided by the warrior together they hastened

Under Heorot’s roof. [The warrior strode]

Hardy under helm, ‘til he stood in the hall.

Beowulf spoke, in his shining byrnie,

His battle-net skillfully smithed:

“Be thou, Hrothgar, well. I am Hygelac’s 406

kinsman and young retainer. In my youth I have

undertaken many glorious things. This thing

with Grendel became apparent to me on my native soil.

Seafarers say that this hall stands,

the best of halls to every man,

idle and useless, since evening’s light

became hidden under the brightness of heaven.

Then persuaded me, mine people,

the best men, the wisest men, lord Hrothgar, that I you seek

because they knew the strength of my skill;

they themselves had observed, when I came from battle,

bloodstained from the enemy, where I bound five together,

destroyed a family of giants, and in the waves slew

water-monsters by night, endured dire distress, 421

avenged assaults on the Weders. They asked for that woe,

I crushed the hostile ones. And now with Grendel,

with that miserable wretch, I will by myself hold

a meeting with the giant. Now I ask you,

lord of the Bright-Danes, I would ask you,

shelter of the Shieldings, a single favor,

that you not refuse me, refuge of fighting men,

noble friend of the folk, now I have come thus from afar:

that I myself might, with this troop of my earls

and this hard company, cleanse Heorot.

I have also found out that the foe

in his recklessness disregards weapons.

I will therefore forego them, so that Hygelac,

my liege-lord, may be glad of heart,

scorn that I should bear sword or broad shield, 436

yellow-board to battle, but with my grip

I shall grapple with the fiend and fight for life,

enemy against enemy. Let him trust

in the Lord’s judgement, he whom death takes!

I expect that he desires, if he is allowed to have mastery

in that war-hall, to feed fearlessly

on the Geatish people just as he often has done,

the strength of the Hrethmen. Nor will you need

to cover my head, but he will have me,

stained with blood, if death takes me.

He will bear my bloody corpse, think to taste it,

to ruthlessly eat the solitary one,

mark his moor-retreat with blood. You need not for a moment

worry about the disposal of my body.

To Higelac send, if battle takes me, 451

My splendid armor, best of battle-shirts,

My breast’s defender, Hreðel’s gift to me,

The work of Weland. Fate cannot be stopped.”

VII

Thus Hroðgar, lord of Scyldings, gave reply:

“For fights, dear Beowulf, you sought us out—

For favors came to me. Your father killed

A man; with sword in hand he caused a feud:

With Wilfingas he murdered Heaϸolaf.

He feared the Weders’ vengeance, wrath of kin,

And fled from home, afraid to stay with them.

He, seeking refuge, sought the South-Dane folk,

The honored Scyldings, over rolling waves,

When first I ruled the Danish folk in youth—

A king with power over men and wealth,

a³⁵ rich fortress of warriors. At that time Heorogar was dead, my 466

elder brother was no longer alive, Healfdene’s son. He was better than

I am. Afterwards, I settled the feud with money. I sent old treasures

to the Wylfings over the water’s crest. He swore oaths to me. It grieves

me in my heart to tell any man what humiliations, what sudden

afflictions Grendel has caused in Heorot because of his hateful

thoughts. My hall-troop, my band of warriors is lessened. Fate has

swept them off into Grendel’s terrible power. God may easily hinder

the deeds of the wild ravager. Very often warriors vowed over the ale-

cup, having drunk beer,

that they wished to await in the beer­hall 481

Grendel’s attack with the terror of swords.

Then this mead-hall, in the early morning

the princely hall was gore-stained; when daylight shined

all the benches were damp with blood,

a sword-bloody hall. I had fewer faithful ones,

dear warriors, when death took them away.

Sit now at the feast and loosen your thoughts,

your glory gained by swords, as your mind incites you.”

Then for the Geat men all together

a bench was cleared in the beer-hall. There the strong-minded went to sit,

bold in their strength. A thane observed his duty,

he who bore in his hands an ornamented ale-cup,

gave out clear sweet drink. A scop sang at times

clear-voiced³⁷ in Heorot. There was joy of heroes, 496

a host of Danes and Geats, not few in number.

VIII – IX

For brevity’s sake, I have omitted part of the text here. In the missing parts, Unferth, a Dane, questions Beowulf’s ability because he did not win a swimming race against a companion. Unferth was jealous of Beowulf. Beowulf replies that he did not win the race because he battled and killed a sea monster during the race. Beowulf then questions Unferth’s bravery and skill in battle. The action resumes with Hrothgar’s queen talking with Beowulf and his men.

Hrothgar’s queen mindful of custom,

gold-adorned, greeting the men in the hall,

and that noble wife gave a cup

first⁴⁵ to the Lord of the East Danes, 615

bade him bliss at the beer-drinking,

beloved of the folk. He eagerly enjoyed

feast and mead-cup, victorious lord.

Then she walked around, the woman of the Helmings,

to the old and the young warriors, each at his bench,

holding the cup, the ring­adorned queen coming finally

to Beowulf.

Worthy of mind the mead-bearer

greeted the dear Geat, thanking God

with wise words for the fact that she’d got her wish, that such an earl

had emerged to offer relief from horrors.

He took the full cup from Wealtheow

and spoke then, battle-eager

Beowulf, son of Ecgtheow, spoke:

“I had it in mind when I mounted the swell, 631

sat in the sea-boat with soldiers in order, that—

no matter what—the will I’d do

of all you people, else perish in slaughter

in the fiend’s tight grasp. I’ll follow through

with a hero’s valor, else here in the mead-hall

the end of me I’ll meet for sure.”

These words the woman well did impress,

this boast from the Geat. Gold-adorned she went,

lady of the people, by her lord to sit.

Then again, as erstwhile, inside the hall

noble speech reigned—the rabble lighthearted—

the tumult of winners, until in the end

the son of Healfdene sought to retire

for night’s repose. He knew that monster

planned⁴⁷ an attack against that high hall. 646

After they could see the sun’s light,

until darkening night, shapes from the cover of shadow,

came crawling over everything, dusky under the clouds.

The troop all arose.

Then, one warrior greeted the other warrior, Hroðgar to Beowulf, hailed him with fortune,

granted command of the wine-house and spoke these words: “Never, since I could raise hand and shield,

have I before entrusted the glorious hall of the Danes, to any man except to you now.

Keep now and protect the best of houses,

remember fame, demonstrate mighty courage, watch against wrath.

There will be no dearth of desire for you

if you survive that courageous work… alive.”

X

Then Hrothgar departed with his troop of warriors, the protector 661

of the Scyldings, out from the hall; the war-chief wished to seek

Wealhtheow, the queen in bed. The King of Glory, so men learned, had

appointed a hall-guard against Grendel; he held a special service to the

lord of the Danes, kept watch against a giant. Indeed the man of the

Geats firmly trusted his brave strength and the favor of the Lord. Then

he removed his mail shirt and the helmet from his head, gave his

decorated sword, the best of weapons, to an attendant and ordered

him to guard his war-gear. Then the good man spoke a boast:

“I do not claim for myself lesser war­skills, 676

deeds of battle, than Grendel himself.

Therefore I do not wish to kill him with a sword,

to deprive him of life, though I am very well able to.

He does not know finer skills, so as to be able to strike me,

to cut my shield to pieces, though he be renowned

for hostile deeds. But we two shall, in the night,

refrain from swordplay, if he dares seek out

battle without weapon. And thereafter, wise God,

the holy Lord, shall grant glory

to whoever’s hand as seems proper to Him.”

He then bent down, the battle-brave one; the cushion met

the warrior’s face, and around him many

brave sailors lay down on the hall-bed.

Not one of them thought that he would ever return 690

from there to his homeland, to the people or village

where he was raised. But they had heard

that far too many of the Danes in the wine hall

had been seized before in death-slaughter.

But the Lord granted to them a war-victory weaving,

comfort and help to the Wederas men

that they entirely overcome their enemy

through the strength of one by his self-same might.

Truly it is known that mighty God

has forever ruled mankind. In blackest night he came,

the shadow-walker moved. The archers slept—

those that must hold the horned-house—

all but one. That was known to men,

that if God did not wish it, the battle-demon could not heave them 705

down into the shadows, but the fierce, wakeful foe, his heart spurred,

awaited the result of battle.

XI

Then Grendel came, scrambling from the moors under misty cliffs:

he bore God’s fury. The evil killer meant to capture some human in

the hall, the high one. He advanced under cloud-cover until he was

sure he knew the gilded wine-hall, golden gathering-place of men. Not

that it was the first time that he had sought out Hrothgar’s home.

Never in the days of his life, before or after, did he find a harder fate

among heroes. Then the striding warrior came to the hall, despoiled

of joys. The door sprang quickly open,

made fast with fire­forged bands, as he touched it with his hands. 721

Then with baleful intent, angered as he was, he ripped open

the mouth of the hall. Immediately then

the enemy trod forth on that patterned floor,

angry of mood he advanced. From his eyes there shone

a horrible light like that of fire.

He beheld in the hall many a warrior

sleeping there together, a band of kinsmen,

a company of young warriors. In his heart he then laughed,

evil monster, for he meant to separate body and soul

of many a warrior present there

before the day dawned. There welled up in him there

the expectation of his fill in feasting. But it was not to be

that he should feast anymore upon mankind

after that night. The powerful one observed,

Hygelac’s brave kinsman, 736

marked how the ravager

would carry out his ambush.

The powerful one didn’t think to pause

but at his first chance swiftly snatched up

a sleeping man, greedily tore at him,

crushed his bones, slurped blood from his veins,

gulped down bite after bite. Soon he had

devoured the dead man’s feet, hands—

everything. The fiend advanced,

groped and grasped again

for the bold-hearted warrior in the bed.

Beowulf, grasping his hostile intent,

braced himself with his own arm.

Immediately the guardian of evil realized

that he had never encountered

in⁵⁴ the corners of the earth, in another man 751

a greater hand-grip. He became in his mind

afraid at heart. None the sooner was he able to get away.

His mind was eager for him to depart, he wished to flee into a hiding place,

to seek the company of devils. It was not his experience there

such as he met before in his life-days.

He remembered then, the good kinsman of Hygelac,

the evening-speech. He stood up

and seized him firmly. Fingers burst.

The giant was trying to escape; the warrior stepped further.

The famous one intended, where he might do so,

to go to a more remote place, and away from there

to escape into the fen­retreats. He knew the control of his fingers

was in the grips of the hostile one, that it was a sad journey

that the harmful destroyer took to Heorot.

The⁵⁵ splendid hall rang. For all the Danes arose, 766

for the fortress-dwellers, for each of the bold ones,

for the warriors, great terror. Both were enraged,

the fierce hall­guardians. The building resounded.

It was a great wonder that the wine-hall

withstood the battle-brave ones, that it did not fall to the ground,

the beautiful building. But for this it was firm,

inside and outside with iron bands,

fastened with ingenuity. There from the floor

many a mead-bench bent away, as I have heard tell,

adorned with gold, where the hostile ones fought.

They had not expected this before, the councillors of the Scyldings,

that ever in any way any man

might break apart the excellent and bone-decorated hall,

destroy it with cunning, unless the embrace of fire

might⁵⁶ swallow it in flames. The sound rose up, 781

new and strange: shock and awe

arose in the North-Danes, in everyone

who heard the wailing woe through the wall,

God’s enemy howling his agony,

a song without triumph, Hell’s captive

wailing his pain. He held him fast,

he who was the strongest man of might

in that day of this life.

XII

The protector of earls did not wish at all

to let that deadly visitor leave alive,

and did not consider his life-days useful

to any people. Around him, many

an earl of Beowulf drew his ancient heirloom,

wished to protect the life 795

of the great prince, as they were able to do so.

They did not know it, when they endured battle,

brave-minded warriors,

and intended to strike on every side,

to seek Grendel’s soul: that no war-swords,

best of swords, any over the earth,

would touch the malefactor.

But Grendel had cursed weapons of victory,

every blade. His death,

on that day of this life,

had to be miserable, and the alien spirit

had to travel far into the dominion of his enemies.

Then he who earlier carried out many

afflictions of mind upon mankind,

many crimes—he was guilty before God—then he found out

that his body would not avail him; 811

but that courageous kinsman of Hygelac

had him by the hand. Each was to the other

loathsome while living. The terrible adversary

weathered a body-wound. On his shoulder showed

a woeful wound plain to see, sinews sprang apart,

bone-links burst. To Beowulf was

granted battle-glory. Grendel had to

flee thence, life­sick, under the fen­slopes

to seek his doleful dwelling. He knew it more firmly

that his life’s end was come,

the day-count of days. To all the Danes,

after that bloody battle, blitheness had come about.

He had then cleansed, he who before came from afar,

wise and brave, the halls of Hrothgar,

saved⁵⁹ them from strife. He rejoiced in his night­work, 826

his feats of courage. The man of the Geats had

fulfilled his boast to the East­Danes.

Likewise, he remedied all distress,

the sorrow that they had suffered before,

and the misery they had been bound to endure

no small grief. That was made evident

when the battle­fierce man placed the hand,

arm, and shoulder—all of Grendel’s grip

was there together—under the vaulted roof.

XIII

Then, in the morning, as I have heard it said,

there were many warriors around the gift-hall.

Chieftains traveled from far and near,

over the wide way, to behold the marvel,

the tracks of the enemy.

His death 840

seemed no sad thing to any man

of those who beheld the wretch’s footsteps, how he, wearied and on his way,

overcome with enmity, bore his mortal trudge

into the mere of the monsters, doomed and shunned.

At this point in the epic, a great feast is held. Heorot is restored to its original glory. As the saga continues, Beowulf has two more great battles and eventually becomes king of the Geats.

Key Concepts from Chapter 4:

• The Romans occupied England for over 400 years but eventually left due to invasions of Roman territory.
• The Romans never completely subjugated the Celtic inhabitants to the north and west of England.
• Latin had minimal influence on OE.
• OE eventually adopted the Roman alphabet.
• The “beginning” of English is the invasion of England by the Germanic Tribes in 449 AD.
• The Viking invasions of the 9^th century AD led to the establishment of the Danelaw.

Key Terms and People from Chapter 4:

• Alfred the Great
• Angles
• Augustine
• Beowulf
• Cademon
• Danelaw
• Frisians
• Gaul
• Old Norse
• Roman alphabet
• runes
• Saxons
• Venerable Bede
• Vikings

Materials for Chapter 4 adapted from the following:

Mastin, Luke. The History of English. (Material was used and adapted with permission.)

Abbott, J., Treharne, E., & Fafinski, M. Beowulf for All. ARC Humanities Press.