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Fundamentals of Cell Biology: Attributions

Fundamentals of Cell Biology

Attributions

Attributions

Chapter 1: Cytoskeleton

Text

  • Cytoskeleton introduction paragraph: Adopted and modified from work contributed to Libretexts by Marc Facciotti. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Intermediate filaments: keratin- Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Intermediate filaments: nuclear lamins- Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by Gerald Bergstrom. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Microtubules- Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by Marc Facciotti. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Microtubules: Motor Proteins- Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by Marc Facciotti. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Microtubules: Kinesin- Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by Marc Facciotti. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Motor proteins: Dyenin- Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by Marc Facciotti. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Actin/Microfilaments intro: Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by Marc Facciotti. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Actin/Microfilaments cell crawling: Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

  • Motor Proteins: Myosin- Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

Figures

  • 1-1: Adopted without change from Wikimedia commons from works contributed by OpenStax. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • Intermediate Filaments- Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by Marc Facciotti and Gerald Bergtrom. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 1-2a: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by Marc Facciotti. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 1-2b: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 1-3: Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 1-4: Adopted without change from Wikimedia commons from works contributed by JWSchmidt at English Wikipedia. This file is licensed under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License

  • 1-5: Adopted without change from works contributed to Dove Medical Press Limited by E. Rashidghamat and J.E. Mellerio . The full terms of this license are available at https://www.dovepress.com/terms.php and incorporate the Creative Commons Attribution - Non Commercial (unported, v3.0) License. 

  • 1-6: Adopted without change from Wikimedia commons from works contributed by P. Scaffidi, L. Gordon and T Misteli. This file was published in a Public Library of Science journal. Their website states that the content of all PLOS journals is published under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license (or its previous version depending on the publication date).

  • 1-7a: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by Marc Facciotti. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 1-7b: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by Suzanne Wakim and Mandeep Grewal. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 1-8: Adopted without change from Wikimedia commons from works contributed by the DataBase Center for Life Science (DBCLS). This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • 1-9: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by Marc Facciotti. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 1-10: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by Marc Facciotti. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 1-11: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 1-12: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by OpenStax. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

Chapter 2: DNA Condensation

Text

  • First and third paragraph adapted and modified from work contributed to AxoPub by E.V. Wong BY-SA 3.0

  • Second and fifth paragraph adapted from work contributed by Todd Nickle and Isabelle Barrette-Ng , CC-BY-SA

Figures

  • 2-1: Adapted without modification from Biology 2e from Open Stax by Mary Ann Clark, Matthew Douglas, and Jung Choi. OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0, CC-BY 4.0

  • 2-2: Adapted without modification from AxoPub by E.V. Wong, BY-SA 3.0

  • 2-3: Adapted without modification from work by Gerald Bergtrom published in WikiPremed. WikiPremed is published under a Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike (cc-by) 3.0 License

  • 2-4: Adopted without modification from works contributed to LibreText from Todd Nickle and Isabelle Barrette-Ng, CC-BY-SA

Chapter 3: Transcription and RNA Modification

Text

  • Eukaryotic Transcription- Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by K. Ahern and I. Rajagopal. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Eukaryotic mRNA Processing- Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by K. Ahern and I. Rajagopal and K. Harris LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Addition of the 5’ cap- Adopted without change from Wikimedia commons from works contributed by English Wikipedia. This file is licensed under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License

  • Polyadenylation- Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by Boundless. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Removal of Introns/Splicing- Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by K. Harris, K. Ahern, and I. Rajagopal and LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

Tables

  • 3-1: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by K. Ahern and I. Rajagopal. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 3-2: Created by Jennell Talley

Figures

  • 3-1: Adopted without change from works contributed to RCSB PDB by C. Bernecky, F. Herzog, W. Baumeister, J.M. Plitzko, and P. Cramer. Images from the RCSB PDB are free of all copyright restrictions and made fully and freely available for both noncommercial and commercial use.

  • 3-2: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by K. Ahern and I. Rajagopal. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 3-3: Adopted with modification (cropped) from works contributed to Libretexts by Connie Rye, Robert Wise, Vladimir Jurukovski, Jean DeSaix, Jung Choi, Yael Avissar et al. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 3-4: Created by Jennell Talley

  • 3-5: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by K. Ahern and I. Rajagopal and K. Harris LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 3-6: Adopted without change from Wikimedia commons from works contributed by Zephyris. This file is licensed under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License

  • 3-8, 3-9, 3-10, 3-11, 3-12, 3-13, and 3-14: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by K. Harris and attributed to Agathman LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 3-15:Created by Jennell Talley

  • 3-16: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by K. Ahern and I. Rajagopal and K. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 3-17: Alternative Splicing- Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by K. Ahern, and I. Rajagopal and LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

  • 3-18: Adopted without change from Wikimedia commons from works contributed by Plociam. This file is licensed under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License

Chapter 4: Translation

Text

  • Protein synthesis- Adopted and modified from work contributed to Libretexts by OpenStax. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Translation is how mRNA is converted to protein- Adopted and modified from works contributed to OpenStax by Mary Ann Clark, Matthey Douglas, and Jung Choi. OpenStax content is licensed by Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0.

  • Translation initiation- Adopted and modified from works contributed to Wikipedia by Wikipedia Contributors. Eukaryotic Translation. Wikipedia is licensed by Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0

  • Translation elongation and termination- Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by Boundless. Libretexts is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • The codon table- Adopted and modified from work contributed to Libretexts by OpenStax. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

  • The genetic code is degenerate and universal- Adopted without change from work contributed to Libretexts OpenStax. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

  • Ribosomes-Adopted and modified from work contributed to Libretexts by OpenStax. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Transfer RNA (tRNA)-Adopted and modified from work contributed to Libretexts by OpenStax and E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Charging the tRNA- Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by OpenStax and E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

Tables

  • 4-1: Players in translation. Created by Shoshana Katzman

Figures

  • 4-1: Adopted without change from work contributed to Libretexts by OpenStax. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

  • 4-2: Adopted without change from Wikimedia commons from works contributed by Plociam. This file is licensed under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License

  • 4-3: Adopted without change from work contributed to Libretexts by OpenStax. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

  • 4-4: Adopted without change from work contributed to Libretexts by OpenStax, original credit as a modification of work by NIH. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

  • 4-5: Adopted without change from work contributed to Libretexts OpenStax. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

  • 4-6: Adopted without change from work contributed to Libretexts by E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

  • 4-7:Codon and Anticodon Interactions. Created by Shoshana Katzman

  • 4-8: Charging of the tRNA- Adopted without modification from works contributed to Wikimedia by Frank Boumphrey. This work is licensed under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License

  • 4-9: RNA-binding proteins. Adopted without modification from works contributed to OpenStax by Mary Ann Clark, Matthey Douglas, and Jung Choi. OpenStax content is licensed by Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0.

  • 4-10: Initiation of translation in eukaryotes- Adopted with modification from works contributed to Wikimedia by Richard Wheeler (Zephyris). This work is licensed under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License

  • 4-11: Interaction between eIF4 and PABP- Created by Jennell Talley

  • 4-12, 4-13, and 4-14: Phases of Translation- Adopted and modified from works contributed to Wikimedia by Carina Huerta (Carihuer). This work is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International

  • 4-15: Flow of genetic information from DNA to protein. Created by Jennell Talley

Chapter 5: Transcriptional Regulation

Text

  • Histone Modification through DNA Modification: Methylation- Adopted and modified from works contributed to OpenStax by Mary Ann Clarck, Matthew Douglas and Jung Choi. OpenStax is licensed by CC Attribution 4.0 license.

  • Chromatin Remodeling- Adopted and modified from Wikipedia by Wikipedia contributors. Chromatin Remodeling. Wikipedia is licensed by Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0

  • Covalent histone modification enzymes- Adopted and modified from Wikipedia by Wikipedia contributors. Histone acetyltransferase. Wikipedia is licensed by Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0

  • Regulation of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes: First paragraph adopted and modified from Basic Cell and Molecular Biology by Gerald Bergtrom https://dc.uwm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1009&context=biosci_facbooks_bergtrom CC SA

  • Regulation of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes: Second paragraph adopted without change from AxoPub by E.V. Wong http://www.axopub.com/Downloads/Cells/cells_complete.pdf BY-SA 3.0

  • Regulation of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes: Third and fourth paragraph adopted and modified from AxoPub by E.V. Wong http://www.axopub.com/Downloads/Cells/cells_complete.pdf BY-SA 3.0

  • Regulation of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes: Fifth Paragraph adopted and modified from Working with Molecular Genetics by Ross Hardison, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0, and Libretexts Biochemistry Supplemental Modules by Michael Blaber, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Figures

  • 5-1: Regulation of Gene Expression. Created by Jennell Talley

  • 5-2: Adopted without modification from works contributed to OpenStax by Mary Ann Clarck, Matthew Douglas and Jung Choi. OpenStax is licensed by CC Attribution 4.0 license.

  • 5-3: Adopted without modification from works contributed to OpenStax by Mary Ann Clarck, Matthew Douglas and Jung Choi. OpenStax is licensed by CC Attribution 4.0 license.

  • 5-4: Adopted with modification (cropped) from works contributed to Wikimedia by Wikimedia Commons contributors (CFCF). This image is licensed by Creative commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

  • 5-5: Adopted without modification from works contributed to OpenStax by Mary Ann Clarck, Matthew Douglas and Jung Choi. OpenStax is licensed by CC Attribution 4.0 license.

  • 5-6: Adopted with modification (cropped) from works contributed to Wikimedia by Annabelle, L. Rodd, Katherine Ververis, and Tom C. Karagiannis. This image is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0).

  • 5-7: Adopted without modification from works contributed to Wikimedia by Wikimedia Commons contributors (Lordman38). This image is released to the public domain.

  • 5-8: Action of DNA methyltransferases. Created by Jennell Talley

  • 5-9: ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling complex. Created by Jennell Talley

  • 5-10: Adopted without modification from AxoPub by E.V. Wong, BY-SA 3.0

  • 5-11: Adopted without modification from AxoPub by E.V. Wong, BY-SA 3.0

  • 5-12: Transcriptional regulation by Gal4. Created by Shoshana Katzman

Chapter 6: Membrane Structure

Text

  • Lipid Bilayers- Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. 

  • Fatty acids- Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Triacylglycerol (all but last paragraph) - Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Triacylglycerol (last paragraph)- Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Folding of the Phospholipid bilayer- Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Diffusion of the lipids within the membrane- Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Other components of the lipid bilayer (1st paragraph) - Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Other components of the lipid bilayer (2nd paragraph) - Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Membrane Fluidity (all but last paragraph) - Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Membrane Fluidity (last paragraph) - Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by Boundless. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-SA 3.0.

  • Lipid Rafts - Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Membrane Proteins - Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Glycocalyx (all except paragraph 2) - Adopted and modified from works contributed to OpenStax. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • Glycocalyx (paragraph 2) - Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

Figures:

  • 6-1: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 6-2: Adopted without change from works contributed by OpenStax. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • 6-3: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 6-4: Adopted without change from Aleia Kim from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 6-5: Adopted without change from Aleia Kim from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 6-6: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 6-7: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 6-8: Adopted without change from Aleia Kim from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 6-9: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 6-10: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 6-11: Adopted without change from Aleia Kim from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 6-12: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 6-13: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 6-14: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by Boundless. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-SA 3.0.

  • 6-15: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 6-16: Adopted without change from Aleia Kim from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 6-17: Adopted without change from works contributed by OpenStax. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • 6-18: Adopted without change from Mariana Ruiz Villareal from works contributed by OpenStax. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • 6-19: Adopted without change from Mariana Ruiz Villareal from works contributed by OpenStax. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

Chapter 7: Membrane Transport

Text

  • Transport across cellular membranes - Adopted and modified from works contributed to OpenStax by Biology 2e. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • Selective Permeability - Adopted and modified from works contributed to OpenStax by Biology 2e. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • Passive Transport - Diffusion - Adopted and modified from works contributed to OpenStax by Biology 2e. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • Passive Transport - Osmosis - Adopted and modified from works contributed to OpenStax by Biology 2e. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • Passive Transport – Facilitated diffusion: channels - Adopted and modified from works contributed to OpenStax by Biology 2e. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • Passive Transport – Facilitated diffusion: carriers - Adopted and modified from works contributed to OpenStax by Biology 2e. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • Direction of transport: Uniports, Antiports, and Symports - Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Active Transport - Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Active Transport – Sodium Potassium pump - Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Active Transport – Sodium glucose transporter (1st paragraph) - Fatty acids- Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Active Transport – Sodium glucose transporter (2nd paragraph) - Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Calcium Pumps - Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Examples of membrane transport in organisms - Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Endocytosis - Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Exocytosis - Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

Figures

  • 7-1: Adopted without change from Mariana Ruiz Villareal from works contributed to OpenStax by Biology 2e. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • 7-2: Adopted without change from works contributed by Biology 2e from works contributed by OpenStax. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • 7-3A: Adopted with modification from Mariana Ruiz Villareal from works contributed to OpenStax by Biology 2e. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • 7-3B: Adopted with modification from Openstax by Anatomy and Physiology. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • 7-4: Adopted without change from Mariana Ruiz Villareal from works contributed to OpenStax by Biology 2e. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • 7-5: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 7-6: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 7-7: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 7-8: Work contributed by Jennifer Hurst-Kennedy.

  • 7-9: Adopted without change from Lbudd14 from works contributed Libretexts by Todd Nickle and Isabelle Barrette-Ng. CC BY SA 4.0

  • 7-10: Adopted without change from Aleia Kim from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 7-11: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 7-12: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 7-13: Adopted without change from Wikipedia from works contributed to Libretexts by Aleia Kim for Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 7-14: Adopted without change from Pehr Jacobson from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

Chapter 8: Electrochemical Gradient

Text

  • Electrochemical gradient (paragraphs 1-3) - Adopted and modified from works contributed to OpenStax by Biology 2e. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • Electrochemical gradient (paragraph 4) - Adopted and modified from works contributed to OpenStax by General Biology. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • Nerve Impulse Transmission within a neuron- Adopted and modified from works contributed to OpenStax by General Biology. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • Neuronal charged membranes- Adopted and modified from works contributed to OpenStax by General Biology. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • Resting Membrane Potential- Adopted and modified from works contributed to OpenStax by General Biology. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • Action Potential- Adopted and modified from works contributed to OpenStax by General Biology. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • Myelin and the Propagation of the Action Potential- Adopted and modified from works contributed to OpenStax by General Biology. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • Synaptic transmission- Adopted and modified from works contributed to OpenStax by General Biology. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • Chemical synapse- Adopted and modified from works contributed to OpenStax by General Biology. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • Electrical Synapse- Adopted and modified from works contributed to OpenStax by General Biology. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • Signal Summation- Adopted and modified from works contributed to OpenStax by General Biology. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • Synaptic plasticity- Adopted and modified from works contributed to OpenStax by General Biology. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • Long-term Potentiation (LTP) - Adopted and modified from works contributed to OpenStax by General Biology. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • Long-term Depression (LTD) - Adopted and modified from works contributed to OpenStax by General Biology. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • Summary - Adopted and modified from works contributed to OpenStax by General Biology. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

Tables

  • 8-1: Adopted with modification from works contributed to OpenStax by General Biology. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

Figures

  • 8-1: Adopted without change from "Synaptitude" Wikimedia Commons from works contributed to OpenStax by Biology 2e. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • 8-2: Adopted without change from works contributed to OpenStax by General Biology. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • 8-3: Adopted without change from works contributed to OpenStax by General Biology. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • 8-4: Adopted without change from works contributed to OpenStax by General Biology. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • 8-5: Adopted without change from works contributed to OpenStax by General Biology. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • 8-6: Adopted without change from Tina Carvalho, NIH-NIGMS and scale-bar data from Matt Russell from works contributed to OpenStax by General Biology. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

  • 8-7: Adopted without change from works contributed to OpenStax by General Biology. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

Chapter 9: Protein Trafficking

Text

  • Paragraph 1-3 adopted with changes from AxoPub by E.V. Wong, BY-SA 3.0

  • Paragraph 4 adopted with changes from Basic Cell and Molecular Biology by Gerald Bergtrom, CC SA

  • Paragraph 5-9 adopted with changes from AxoPub by E.V. Wong, BY-SA 3.0

Figures

  • 9-1: Created by Jennifer Hurst-Kennedy.

  • 9-2: Adopted without change from Basic Cell and Molecular Biology by Gerald Bergtrom, CC SA

  • 9-3: Adopted without change from AxoPub by E.V. Wong, BY-SA 3.0

  • 9-4: Adopted without change from AxoPub by E.V. Wong, BY-SA 3.0

  • 9-5: Adopted without change from AxoPub by E.V. Wong, BY-SA 3.0

Chapter 10: Vesicles in the Endomembrane System

Text

  • Vesicles in the Endomembrane system - Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Vesicle fusion and release (paragraphs 1-4, 9) - Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Vesicle fusion and release (paragraphs 5-8) - Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Vesicle fusion and release (paragraphs 10) - Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by Suzanne Wakim and Mandeep Grewal. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-SA 3.0.

  • Vesicle fusion and release (paragraphs 11) - Adopted and modified from works contributed to OpenStax. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (BY).

  • Vesicle Formation (paragraphs 1-5) - Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Vesicle Formation (paragraphs 5-6) - Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL) Receptor - Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by John W. Kimball. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY 3.0.

  • Endosomes - Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

Figures

  • 10-1: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 10-2: Adopted with modification from works contributed to Libretexts by E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 10-3: Adopted without change from Wikipedia from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 10-4: Adopted with modification from works contributed to Libretexts by E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 10-5: Adopted without change from Wikimedia Commons from works contributed to Wikimedia Commons by AntiSense. This file is licensed by CC BY-SA 3.0.

  • 10-6: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by John W. Kimball. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 10-7: Adopted with modifications from works contributed to Libretexts by E.V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 10-8: Adopted without change from Wikipedia from works contributed to Libretexts by Kevin Ahern, Indira Rajagopal, and Taralyn Tan. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 10-9: Adopted without change from the Centers From Disease Control and Prevention from works contributed to OpenStax by Microbiology. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

Chapter 11: Principles of Cell Signaling

Text:

  • Portions of subsection Intracellular Signaling Cascades and Effectors: Adopted and modified from work contributed to Libretexts by E. V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Portions of How do cells communicate?, Types of Cell Signaling, and Receptors: Adapted and modified from Concepts of Biology from Open Stax by Samantha Fowler, Rebecca Roush, James Wise, and other contributors. Concepts of Biology by OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0

Figures

  • 11-1: Types of Cell Signaling. Adapted and modified from Concepts of Biology from Open Stax by Samantha Fowler, Rebecca Roush, James Wise, and other contributors. Concepts of Biology by OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0

  • 11-2: Neuronal Signaling. Adapted without change from Concepts of Biology from Open Stax by Samantha Fowler, Rebecca Roush, James Wise, and other contributors. Concepts of Biology by OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0

  • 11-3. Generic Cell Signaling Pathway. Created by Jennifer Hurst-Kennedy.

  • 11-4: Kinases and Phosphatases: Adapted without change from Wikimedia (no author listed). Wikimedia is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

  • 11-5: GTPases: Adapted without change from Wikimedia (no author listed). Wikimedia is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

  • 11-6: Intracellular Signaling. Adapted without change from Concepts of Biology from Open Stax by Samantha Fowler, Rebecca Roush, James Wise, and other contributors. Concepts of Biology by OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0

  • 11-7: Steroid Hormones. Adapted without change from Concepts of Biology from Open Stax by Samantha Fowler, Rebecca Roush, James Wise, and other contributors. Concepts of Biology by OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0

  • 11-8: Guanylyl Cyclase and cGMP. Adapted and modified from works contributed to Wikimedia by Polimerek. Wikimedia is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

  • 11-9: Nitric Oxide Signaling. Created by Jennifer Hurst-Kennedy.

  • 11-10: Ion channels. Adapted without change from Concepts of Biology from Open Stax by Samantha Fowler, Rebecca Roush, James Wise, and other contributors. Concepts of Biology by OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0

Chapter 12: GPCRs and RTKs

Text

  • Portions of G-protein coupled receptors, Receptor Tyrosine Kinases, and Complexities in Cell Signaling: Adapted and modified from Concepts of Biology from Open Stax by Samantha Fowler, Rebecca Roush, James Wise, and other contributors. Concepts of Biology by OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0

  • Portions of cAMP/PKA Signal Transduction Pathway: Adopted and modified from work contributed to Libretexts by E. V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

Figures

  • 12-1: GPCRs. Adopted without change from work contributed to Libretexts by E. V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 12-2: G-protein Activation and Inactivation. Adapted without change from Concepts of Biology from Open Stax by Samantha Fowler, Rebecca Roush, James Wise, and other contributors. Concepts of Biology by OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0

  • 12-3: cAMP. Adapted without change from Concepts of Biology from Open Stax by Samantha Fowler, Rebecca Roush, James Wise, and other contributors. Concepts of Biology by OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0

  • 12-4: The cAMP/PKA signal transduction pathway. Adopted and modified from work contributed to Libretexts by E. V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 12-5: PIP2, IP3, and DAG. Adapted without change from Concepts of Biology from Open Stax by Samantha Fowler, Rebecca Roush, James Wise, and other contributors. Concepts of Biology by OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0

  • 12-6: The PIP2/Ca++ Signal Transduction. Adopted without change from work contributed to Libretexts by E. V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 12-7: RTK Activation. Adapted without change from Concepts of Biology from Open Stax by Samantha Fowler, Rebecca Roush, James Wise, and other contributors. Concepts of Biology by OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0

  • 12-8: The MAP Kinase Signaling Cascade. Created by Jennifer Hurst-Kennedy.

  • 12-9: EGFR and Cancer. Adapted without change from Concepts of Biology from Open Stax by Samantha Fowler, Rebecca Roush, James Wise, and other contributors. Concepts of Biology by OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0

  • 12-10: Interconnecting signaling pathways. Adapted without change from Wikimedia. By K.murphy at English Wikipedia - Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=37705101

Chapter 13: The Cell Cycle and Its Regulation

Text

  • Portions of this chapter were adapted and modified from Biology 2e from Open Stax by Mary Ann Clark, Matthew Douglas, and Jung Choi. OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0

Figures

  • 13-1: The eukaryotic cell cycle. Adapted without modification from Biology 2e from Open Stax by Mary Ann Clark, Matthew Douglas, and Jung Choi. OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0

  • 13-2: Subphases of Mitosis. Adapted without modification from Biology 2e from Open Stax by Mary Ann Clark, Matthew Douglas, and Jung Choi. OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0

  • 13-3: The breakdown and reformation of the nuclear envelope during mitosis. Adapted and modified from work contributed to Wikimedia by Ya-Hui Chi , Zi-Jie Chen and Kuan-Teh Jeang. Wikimedia is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

  • 13-4: Regulation of sister chromatid separation during anaphase. Adapted and modified from work contributed to Wikimedia by David O. Morgan. Wikimedia is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

  • 13-5: Cytokinesis. Adapted without modification from Biology 2e from Open Stax by Mary Ann Clark, Matthew Douglas, and Jung Choi. OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0

  • 13-6: Go Phase. Adapted without modification from Biology 2e from Open Stax by Mary Ann Clark, Matthew Douglas, and Jung Choi. OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0

  • 13-7: Cell Cycle Checkpoints. Adopted without modification from work contributed to Libretexts by E. V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 13-8: M-Cyclin. Created by Jennifer Hurst-Kennedy

  • 13-9: Activation of mitotic cyclin/cdk complex Adopted and modified from work contributed to Libretexts by E. V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 13-10: Regulation of the initiation of DNA Replication by the S-Cdk/cyclin complex. Adapted and modified from work contributed to Wikimedia by Hannes Röst. Wikimedia is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

  • 13-11: Retinoblastoma. Adapted without modification from Biology 2e from Open Stax by Mary Ann Clark, Matthew Douglas, and Jung Choi. OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0

  • 13-12: p53 and p21. Created by Jennifer Hurst-Kennedy.

Chapter 14: DNA Replication

Text

  • DNA Replication introduction- Adopted and modified from works contributed to LibreTexts by Kevin Ahern and Indira Rajagopal. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. And works contributed to OpenStax by Mary Ann Clark, Matthew Douglas, and Jung Choi. OpenStax is licensed by CC Attribution 4.0 license.

  • Steps of DNA replication through Telomere replication- Adopted and modified from works contributed to OpenStax by Mary Ann Clark, Matthew Douglas, and Jung Choi. OpenStax is licensed by CC Attribution 4.0 license.

  • DNA Damage and Repair- Adopted and modified from works contributed to LibreTexts by Gerald Bergtrom. Figures 14-11, 14-12, and 14-14 are taken from this text and illustrated by Gerald Bergtrom. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

Figures

  • 14-1: Licensing of Replication- Adopted and modified from works contributed to Wikimedia by Devin A. King. This image is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported CC BY-SA 3.0

  • 14-2: Elongation of DNA replication. Conceptualized by Jennell Talley and illustrated by Christopher G. Brown

  • 14-3: Elongation of DNA replication part 2. Conceptualized by Jennell Talley and illustrated by Christopher G. Brown

  • 14-4: Process of removing RNA primers and ligating DNA strands. Conceptualized by Jennell Talley and illustrated by Christopher G. Brown

  • 14-5: Repeated removal of RNA primers and action of ligase. Conceptualized by Jennell Talley and illustrated by Christopher G. Brown

  • 14-6: Proofreading by DNA polymerase. Created by Jennell Talley

  • 14-7: Telomerase- Adopted and modified (cropped) from works contributed to OpenStax by Mary Ann Clark, Matthew Douglas, and Jung Choi. OpenStax is licensed by CC Attribution 4.0 license.

  • 14-8: Depurination. Created by Jennell Talley

  • 14-9a: Pyrimidine Dimers- Adopted with modification from works contributed to Wikimedia by David Herring of NASA. This image is released to the public domain.

  • 14-9b: Chemical Structure of Pyrimidine Dimers- Adopted with modification from works contributed to Wikimedia by Wikimedia Commons Contributors (J3D3). This image is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International.

  • 14-10: Deamination- Adopted with modification from works contributed to Wikimedia by Wikimedia Commons Contributors. The Guanine and Adenine deamination images are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International. The Cytosine deamination image is released to the public domain.

  • 14-11: Base Excision Repair (BER). Adopted without change from Gerald Bergtrom. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 14-12: Nucleotide Excision Repair (NER). Adopted without change from Gerald Bergtrom. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 14-13 Mismatch Repair- Adopted with modification from works contributed to Wikimedia by Kenji Fukui. This image is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0).

  • 14-14: Non-homologous End-joining (NHEJ). Adopted without change from Gerald Bergtrom. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 14-15: Repair of a double-strand break by HRR. Created by Jennell Talley.

Chapter 15: Cell Death and Cancer

Text:

  • Portions of the “Apoptosis” (Introduction) and “Cancer” (parts of Overview, Proto-oncogenes, and Tumor Suppressors) Sections were adapted and modified from Biology 2e from Open Stax by Mary Ann Clark, Matthew Douglas, and Jung Choi. OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0

  • Portions of the “Apoptosis” (Initiation of Apoptosis) and “Cancer” (parts of Overview and Treatments for Cancers) Sections were adapted and modified from work contributed to Libretexts by Gerald Bergtrom LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • “Stages of Apoptosis” was adapted and modified from work contributed to Libretexts by E. V. Wong. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

Figures

  • 15-1: Apoptosis versus Necrosis. Left panel: Adopted and modified from work contributed to Libretexts by Gerald Bergtrom LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Right panel: Adopted without change from work submitted to wikimedia by the National institute on alcohol abuse and alcoholism (NIAAA)

  • 15-2: Apoptosis during embryonic development: Adapted without change from Biology 2e from Open Stax by Mary Ann Clark, Matthew Douglas, and Jung Choi. OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0

  • 15-3: Caspases. Created by Jennifer Hurst-Kennedy.

  • 15-4: The role of caspases in apoptosis. Adapted and modified from work contributed to Wikimedia by Tsgupta . Wikimedia is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

  • 15-5: Membrane blebbing and apoptotic bodies. Adapted and modified from work contributed to Wikimedia by Emma Farmer. Wikimedia is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

  • 15-6: Cell Division in Normal and Cancer Cells. Adopted without change from work contributed to Libretexts by Gerald Bergtrom LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 15-7: p53 in cancer: Biology 2e from Open Stax by Mary Ann Clark, Matthew Douglas, and Jung Choi. OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0

  • 15-8: Benign and malignant tumors. Adopted without modification from works contributed to Wikimedia by Simon Caulton. Wikimedia is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

Chapter 16: Stem Cells

Text

  • Stem Cells- Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by John W. Kimball and Boundless. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Early embryonic development- Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by Openstax. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • Types of Stem Cells (totipotent, pluripotent and multipotent)- Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by John W. Kimball. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

  • Therapeutic Applications of Stem Cells and Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPS)- Adopted and modified from works contributed to Libretexts by John W. Kimball. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

Figures

  • 16-1: Adopted with modification (cropped) from Wikimedia commons from works contributed by the Wasserman Lab. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license.

  • 16-2: Adopted without change from Wikimedia commons from works contributed by Haileyfournier. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license.

  • 16-3: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by Openstax, credit: (b) modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villareal; scale-bar data from Matt Russell. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 16-4: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by Openstax, credit: (credit a: modification of work by Gray’s Anatomy; credit b: modification of work by Pearson Scott Foresman, donated to the Wikimedia Foundation. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 16-5: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by Openstax. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

  • 16-6: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by Openstax College. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license.

  • 16-7: Adopted without change from Xiao et. al. “Induced pluripotent stem cells in Parkinson's disease: scientific and clinical challenges. The Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychology. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2015-312036. This is an Open Access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license. See: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/

  • 16-8: Adopted without change from works contributed to Libretexts by John W. Kimball. LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

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